In this article, we take a look at some of the surgeries commonly used to remove or modify certain body parts. What is being done, and why?
Circumcision
Circumcision is a surgical procedure that removes the foreskin from a penis. Historically, circumcision has been practiced routinely in many different cultures, often as part of a ritual celebrating a boy's promotion to adulthood, or as a religious requirement, or for hygenic reasons. Worldwide, around 38% of men are circumcised. Circumcision appears to have health benefits, helping to prevent certain infections and to reduce the spread of HIV and other sexually-transmitted infections. Research indicates that circumcision usually has neither a poitive nor a negative effect on sexual function or enjoyment. Some medical authorities recommend circumcision for newborns, while others consider it unnecessary. When performed under proper medical conditions, circumcision is a low-risk procedure, although it causes pain.
A growing anti-circumcision movement argues that the procedure's risks outweigh its benefits, and that it is abusive to perform it on minors. In the U.S., major medical organizations have taken the position that infant circumcision is a choice that should be left to parents.
Castration
Castration is the removal or deactivation of the testes (testicles), and includes removal through surgery or mutilation. Surgical removal of the testes is called oriechtomy. The most common reason for oriechtomy is to treat cancer, and it is also a procedure undergone by persons transitioning from male to female (who may also choose to have the penis removed). If both testes are removed, the production of sperm and testosterone ceases. Chemical castration uses drugs to stop hormone production. It is sometimes used as a cancer treatment, and is also occasionally imposed on sex offenders.
Historically, physical castration has been performed on men as a component of slavery, as a terror tactic in war, or as a punishment for certain crimes. It is performed on animals to prevent overpopulation and to obtain desired temperament and behavior. In antiquity, castrated slaves were called eunuchs, and were used as harem attendants. In some historical societies, eunuchs had special roles as trusted royal attendants or guardians. In some cases, men performed self-castration for religious reasons, committing themselves to celibacy. If castration occurs before puberty, the man will retain a high-pitched voice in adulthood. For this reason, boy singers were sometimes castrated to maintain their soprano voices. They were known as castrati. The practice was ended in the late 19th century.
Penectomy
Penectomy is surgical removal of all or part of the penis. This may be necessary due to cancer or other very serious illnesses. Because penile cancer is rare, this is not a common procedure. In some caes, a phalloplasty, or penis reconstruction surgery, may be performed, although this is a complex surgery with a high risk of complications. People undergoing sex reassignment surgery may choose penecotomy, or may choose to use the penile tissue for vaginoplasty.
Although many people equate penis removal with castration or emascualtion, they are not exactly the same. Castration is the removal of the testicles. Emasculation is the removal of all external male genitalia. The history, purposes, medical consequences, and long-term complications of these procedures are different.
Prostatectomy
Prostatectomy is surgery to take out part or all of the prostate gland. This is a common surgery to treat prostate cancer, and may also be used for other conditions. A radical prostatectomy removes the entire prostate and some surrounding tissues. Sometimes nearby lymph nodes are also removed. A simple or partial prostatectomy removes the interior of the prostate, leaving the exterior intact. This surgery is typically used for enlarged prostate. Possible side effects of prostatectomy include urinary incontinence, erectile dysfunction or other sexual problems, and the usual problems associated with any major surgery.
Mastectomy
Mastectomy is the surgical removal of the breast, typically performed to treat or prevent cancer. Sometimes a mastectomy includes removal of nearby lymph nodes. Sometimes chest wall muscles are also removed. A partial mastectomy, called a lumpectomy, removes a tumor and a small border of healthy tissue around it, rather than the entire breast. In some cases, the skin and/or nipple are preserved, either for appearance or in peparation for possible reconstructive surgery. Persons undergoing gender reassignment sometimes choose mastectomy to obtain a more masculine appearance.
Breast reduction surgery, known as mammoplasty, is not exactly the same as mastectomy. Mammoplasty removes some fat, tissue, and skin to create smaller breasts. In some cases, liposuction is used to remove excess fat. Mammoplasty is performed on women with very large breasts that cause pain and interfere with life activities.
Hysterectomy
A hysterectomy is surgery to remove the uterus. This is performed to treat cancer, fibroid tumors, and some other conditions. Without a uterus, pregnancy is impossible, and monthly periods will not occur. A "supracervical hysterectomy" or partial hysterectomy, removes the upper portion of the uterus, leaving the cervix intact. Cervical cancer is still possible, and regular pap smears are needed. A "total hysterectomy" removes the uterus and cervix. Because the ovaries are still present, hormone cycles still occur. A "total hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy" removes the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. A "radical hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy" removes the uterus, cervix, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and the upper part of the vagina. This type of surgery is done to treat cancer. Any time the ovaries are removed, the patient will experience immediate menopause, although hormone replacement therapy (HRT) may be used to prevent this.
Some research indicates that many hysterectomies are unnecessary, performed due to misdiagnoses, or to treat conditions that could be treated some other way. Unnecessary hysterectomies are often characterized as symptomatic of gender and class discrimination, lack of informed consent, and even human rights violations.
Female Genital Mutilation
Female genital mutilation (FGM) is the removal of all or part of female external genitalia for non-medical reasons. This is a practice that is carried out on minors, as part of a longstanding pattern of discrimination and abuse against women and girls, typically with the intention of limiting and controlling women's sexuality. FGM is internationally recognized as a human rights violation, but is still practiced in around 31 countries, and affects millions of people. Supporters of FGM often try to make it sound benign by calling it "female circumcision," but this is a false analogy. FGM has no health benefits, no religious or cultural meaning, and places the victim at risk for pain, infection/death, and urinary problems, as well as long-term or permanent complications, recurring infections, reproductive harm, chronic pain, childbirth complications, and mental health issues.
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